The Animal Welfare Information Center, awic@nal.usda.gov
http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/companimals/assist.htm
April 9, 2004
A Brief Information Resource on Assistance Animals for the Disabled
August 2003
Updated April 2004
Compiled by:
Kristina Adams, MS
Stacy Rice
Animal Welfare Information Center
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service
National Agricultural Library
10301 Baltimore Avenue
Beltsville, MD 20705-2351
Telephone: (301) 504-6212
Fax: (301) 504-7125
E-mail: awic@nal.usda.gov
Introduction
Providing for the health of humans through animal interactions dates back many centuries. As an example, horseback riding is mentioned throughout history as a cure for various sicknesses including gout, neurological disorders and depression. Today, animals provide therapeutic benefits to humans with physical and mental illnesses as well as provide assistance to people with disabilities.
The most commonly recognized assistance animals are dogs. Due to their social nature, dogs are wonderful pets, companions, and protectors. Dogs work closely with people in a variety of areas including law enforcement, search and rescue, and farming. As assistance animals, dogs provide help for the visually and hearing impaired, serve as an alert system for impending seizures, and offer additional strength and mobility for the physically disabled. Dogs also provide comfort for people suffering emotional difficulties.
There are many other animal species that provide therapeutic benefits to people. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifically defines a service animal as a “guide dog, signal dog, or other animal individually trained to provide assistance to an individual with a disability.” Some of these “other animals” that assist people with disabilities are monkeys, birds, pigs, and horses. An even greater number of animal species serve as therapy animals, including rabbits, hamsters, and snakes.
This information resource was created
in response to many of the questions the
Although many service animals wear special collars or harnesses, by law they are not required to wear special identification equipment. Therefore, some, but not all service animals wear special collars and harnesses. Also, some, but not all, are licensed or certified and have identification papers. For more information about service animals in places of business, see http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/animal.htm.
Categories of Assistance (Service) Animals
Guide Animals
Guide dog use began in
Guide dogs help the blind/visually impaired to “see” in their everyday lives. Guide dogs assist by stopping their human companion before crossing streets and making sure the streets are safe to cross, by avoiding obstacles such as signs, cars, and other people, and by helping their companion locate things.
The most common breeds used as guide dogs are German Shepherds, Labrador Retrievers, and Golden Retrievers. These guide dogs often wear a harness with a stiff, short, U-shaped handle that keeps the dog and the human companion in very close contact with each other.
The Guide Horse Foundation began in 1999 with the goal of training miniature horses as guide horses for the visually impaired. These miniature horses provide an alternative mobility function for blind people and so far perform well at keeping their people safe.
Hearing Animals
Roy Kabat, a movie animal trainer, founded Dogs for the Deaf in 1977 to train dogs to assist hearing-impaired people. These first hearing dogs were trained with input from an audiologist and the American Humane Association.
Hearing dogs provide the sense of sound to their hearing impaired companions. These dogs can be trained to alert a person to a smoke alarm, door knock or bell, telephone, alarm clock, kitchen timer, baby cry, or the person=s own name. A hearing dog may wear an orange collar and leash or a vest. A variety of breeds are used a hearing dogs, since intelligence and trainability are more important than strength and size.
Service Animals
Canine Companions for Independence (CCI) pioneered the concept of the service dog, a highly trained canine used to assist people who have disabilities with specialized services in 1975. Service dogs are trained to be the strength and movement for people with muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, and congenital abnormalities. A service dog can perform many tasks for their companions such as picking up dropped articles, pulling wheelchairs, assisting walkers, turning lights on and off, opening and closing doors, carrying school books, and pulling their companions out of bed. Most service dogs are generally Labrador Retrievers and Golden Retrievers.
Monkeys, typically capuchins, also serve quadriplegic humans. Monkey helpers perform simple tasks, such as getting something to eat or drink, retrieving dropped or out of reach items, assisting with audio cassettes, video cassettes, CDs, and books, and operating lights. Dr. M.J. Williard, a behavioral psychologist, and Judi Zazula, an occupational therapist, trained the first monkey helper in 1979 (see Helping Hands).
Seizure Alert Animals
Some animals can be trained to recognize specific changes preceding an epileptic
seizure in people. These animals, usually dogs, can provide a signal
that acts as a useful warning to their human companion. Dogs may alert people by whining, licking the
owner, and alerting others to their special companion’s impending seizure. This
alerting behavior allows the owner to get to a safe place or in a safe position
before the onset of the seizure.
Social/Therapy
Animals
Social/therapy animals provide emotional support in places such as elder care
facilities and hospitals. These animals do not have the same legal status
as assistance/service animals and are not mentioned in the
Selected Bibliographic References
* These citations were selected using the Agricola database, a searchable bibliographic database at the National Agricultural Library. NAL call numbers are provided. For more information about requesting materials, go to http://www.nal.usda.gov/ddsb/.
C.A.T.: Companion animal therapy (1984). National 4-H News 62(1): 12-14, 25, ISSN: 0027-9285.
NAL Call Number: 275.28 N212
Descriptors: companion animal therapy, 4-H projects, treatment of disabled patients, dogs, rabbits, animal training
Eyes for the blind (1983). National 4-H News 61(9): 22, ISSN: 0027-9285.
NAL Call Number: 275.28 N212
Descriptors: raising guide dog puppies, 4-H projects, The Seeing Eye, dogs
Guide
dogs for the blind (1974).
NAL Call Number: 41.8 C12
Descriptors: dogs, animal training, Guide Dogs for the Blind, Inc., non-profits
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: horses, therapeutic recreation, temperament, blood plasma, hydrocortisone, epinephrine, norepinephrine, stimuli, responses, grading
Cawley, R., D. Cawley, and K. Retter (1994). Therapeutic horseback riding and self-concept in adolescents with special educational needs. Anthrozoos 7(2): 129-134, ISSN: 0892-7936.
NAL Call Number: SF411.A57
Descriptors: adolescents, horse riding, self perception, self esteem, therapeutic recreation
Delta Society
(1980). Delta Society Information Packets: (1) Pets in Hospitals,
(2) Hearing Dog Packet, (3) Animals in Nursing Homes and Public Housing - Legislation
and Implementation, (4) Pets in Prison.
NAL Call Number: SF411.5.P4
Descriptors:
pets, social aspects,
DePauw, K.P. (1984). Therapeutic
horseback riding in Europe and North America. In: The Pet Connection:
Its Influence on Our Health and Quality of Life, R.K. Anderson, B.L. Hart
and L.A. Hart (eds.), Minneapolis, MN: Center to Study Human-Animal Relationships
and Environments, University of Minnesota, pp.141-153.
NAL Call Number: SF411.5.P47
Descriptors:
horse riding, therapy, physically handicapped persons,
Dietrich, C. (1984). Temperament
evaluation of puppies: use in guide dog selection. In: The Pet Connection
: Its Influence on Our Health and Quality of Life, R.K. Anderson, B.L. Hart
and L.A. Hart (eds.), Minneapolis, MN: Center to Study Human-Animal Relationships
and Environments, University of Minnesota, pp.
194-199.
NAL Call Number: SF411.5.P47
Descriptors: handicapped persons, dogs, training animal, breed differences
Eames, E. and T. Eames (1999). Veterinarians as healers, helpers and humanitarians: working with assistance dogs and disabled clients. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference 13: 309-310.
NAL Call Number: SF605.N672
Descriptors: dogs, working animals, veterinarians, handicapped persons
Eames, E. and T. Eames (1996). Veterinarians, disabled clients, and assistance dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 209(8): 1398-1402, ISSN: 0003-1488.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3
Descriptors: veterinarians, handicapped persons, working animals, dogs, guide dogs, veterinary services, hearing dogs, service dogs
Engel, B.T. (1992). Therapeutic
Riding Programs Instruction and Rehabilitation: A Handbook for Instructors and
Therapists. Durango, CO: Barbara Engel Therapy Services, 637 p., ISBN: 0963306502.
NAL Call Number: RM931.H6T44 1992
Descriptors: horsemanship, therapeutic use, horses, psychological aspects, human animal relationships, training horses
Flach, M., C. Heisterkamp
and E. Stephan (1984). Aircraft noise influenced behaviour
of service dogs. In: Proceedings of the International Congress on Applied
Ethology in Farm Animals, Kiel 1984, J. Unshelm, G. van Putten and K. Zeeb (eds.), Darmstadt, Germany: Kuratorium
fur Technik und Bauwesen
in der Landwirtschaft (KTBL),
pp.343-349.
NAL Call Number: SF756.7.I5 1984
Descriptors: dogs, noise, aircraft, animal behavior, reproductive behavior
Funk, M.S.M. and B.A. Smith (2000). Occupational therapists and therapeutic riding. Anthrozoos 13(3): 174-181, ISSN: 0892-7936.
NAL Call Number: SF411.A57
Descriptors: horse riding, therapeutic recreation
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: dogs, guides, adults, animal behavior, prediction, genetic correlation, heritability, selection, fearfulness
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: factor analysis, analytical methods, animal behavior, dogs, breeds, training animal
Hart,
NAL Call Number: SF411.A57
Descriptors: dogs, attachment behavior, social interaction, handicapped persons
Hart,
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: dogs, working animals, deafness, social adjustment, social integration, social interaction
Heisterkamp,
C. (1983). Der Einfluss von Fluglarm
auf das Verhalten von Diensthunden [The behavior of service dogs influenced by aircraft
noise]. Unpublished thesis, Tierarztliche Hochschule,
NAL Call Number: 41.2 H198 1983 [no.23]
Henderson, K. (1996). No
dogs allowed? Federal policies on access for service animals.
NAL Call Number: AHV4701.A952
Descriptors: animals, training, handicapped persons, government policy, legislation, animal welfare, Americans with Disabilities Act
Koda, N. (2001). Inappropriate behavior of potential guide dogs for the blind and coping behavior of human raisers. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 72(1): 79-87, ISSN: 0168-1591.
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: guide dogs, puppies, animal behavior, behavior modification, human behavior, relationships, age differences, play behavior, human-animal relationships
Limond, J.A., J.W.S. Bradshaw, and K.F.M. Cormack (1997). Behavior of children with learning disabilities interacting with a therapy dog. Anthrozoos 10(2/3): 84-89, ISSN: 0892-7936.
NAL Call Number: SF411.A57
Descriptors: dogs, children, mental retardation
Mader, B.,
NAL Call Number: RJ1.C3
Abstract: While service dogs are known to perform important tasks for people using wheelchairs, such as retrieving dropped items or pulling a wheelchair, they may also serve as an antidote for social ostracism. Adults in wheelchairs have been found to receive many more social acknowledgments when a service dog is present than when not. This study examined whether disabled children in wheelchairs with service dogs receive more frequent social acknowledgment than when no dog is present. Behaviors of passersby in response to children in wheelchairs were recorded in shopping malls and on school playgrounds. In both settings, social acknowledgments (e.g., friendly glances, smiles, and conversations) were substantially more frequent when a service dogs may assist in normalizing the social interactions for children with disabilities producing social isolation.
Descriptors: handicapped children, social interaction, dogs,
peer relationships,
Murphy, J.A. (1995). Assessment of the temperament of potential guide dogs. Anthrozoos 8(4): 224-234, ISSN: 0892-7936.
NAL Call Number: SF411.A57
Descriptors: guide dogs, assessment, training of animals, grading
Murphy, J.A. (1998). Describing categories of temperament in potential guide dogs for the blind. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 58(1/2): 163-178, ISSN: 0168-1591.
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: guide dogs, temperament, training of animals, culling, animal behavior
Nicholson, J., S. Kemp Wheeler, and D. Griffiths (1995). Distress arising from the end of a guide dog partnership. Anthrozoos 8(2): 100-110, ISSN: 0892-7936.
NAL Call Number: SF411.A57
Descriptors: guide dogs, man, mental stress, grief
NIH Technology Assessment
Workshop Working Group (eds.) (1987). Health
Benefits of Pets: Program and Abstracts.
NAL Call Number: SF411.5.N53
Descriptors: health, companion animals, human-animal interaction
NIH Technology Assessment Workshop Working Group (eds.) (1988). Health Benefits of Pets: Summary of Working Group. Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health.
NAL Call Number: SF411.5.N532
Descriptors: health, human-animal interaction, companion animals
Peel, B.W. (1975). The training of guide dogs for the blind.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 N483
Descriptors: history of guide dogs, training, selection process, breeding program, matching dogs and people
Potter, J.T., J.W. Evans, and B.H. Nolt, Jr. (1994). Therapeutic horseback riding. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 204(1): 131-133, ISSN: 0003-1488.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3
Descriptors: handicapped persons, horse riding, therapy, programs
Rich, G.A.,
P. Odegard-Johnson, L. Kowalsky
and R. Story (1983). Guidelines for organizing a horseback riding
program for individuals with disabilities.
NAL Call Number: 275.29
C71E no.518A
Descriptors: horses, therapeutic riding, horsemanship, disabilities
Sanders, C.R. (2000). The impact of guide dogs on the identity of people with visual impairments. Anthrozoos 13(3): 131-139, ISSN: 0892-7936.
NAL Call Number: SF411.A57
Descriptors: guide dogs, self perception, blindness
Sandler, J.L. (1996). Care and treatment of service dogs and their owners. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 208(12): 1979-1981, ISSN: 0003-1488.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3
Descriptors: dogs, working animals, veterinary services, handicapped persons, customer relations
Scheffler, K.H. (1979). Restitution des dens caninus beim diensthund [Restoration of canine teeth in service dogs]. Monatshefte Fur Veterinarmedizin 34(13): 504-507, ISSN: 0026-9263.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 M742
Serpell, J.A. and Y.Y. Hsu (2001). Development and validation of a novel method for evaluating behavior and temperament in guide dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 72(4): 347-364, ISSN: 0168-1591.
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: guide dogs, animal behavior, temperament, evaluation, questionnaires, validity
Shalev, A. and D. Ben Mordehai (1996). Snakes: interactions with children with disabilities and the elderly--some psychological considerations. Anthrozoos 9(4): 182-187, ISSN: 0892-7936.
NAL Call Number: SF411.A57
Descriptors: handicapped children, reptiles, snakes, human-animal interactions
Shirley, R.M. (1982). Development
of a 4-H therapeutic horseback riding program in Carroll County, Maryland.
Unpublished thesis,
106 p.
NAL Call Number: RM931.H6S5
Abstract: A therapeutic riding program teaches horsemanship in a safe and controlled environment to people who have physical, mental, or psychological handicaps, or who are deaf or blind. The author explains the creation of a therapeutic riding program using his own experiences in establishing the Carroll County, Maryland 4-H Riding for the Handicaped Program and mateials published by other programs. Areas of explanation include: administration; insurance, recruiting/training volunteers; physical facilities; special equipment needed for horse and rider; recruiting handicapped riders; funding; public relations and publicity. A sample of an actual riding lesson is included.
Descriptors:
4-H clubs,
NAL Call Number: SF428.2.S54
Descriptors: dogs, human-animal interaction, kids, seniors, therapy dogs, police dogs, hearing dogs, guide dogs
Slabbert, J.M. and J.S.J. Odendaal (1999). Early prediction of adult police dog efficiency--a longitudinal study. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 64(4): 269-288, ISSN: 0168-1591.
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: dogs, training of animals, puppies, performance testing, temperament, aggressive behavior, working animals, gun shyness, age differences, prediction
Spink, J. (1993). Developmental
Riding Therapy: A Team Approach to Assessment and Treatment.
NAL Call Number: NBU SF309.26 H35 S7
1993
Descriptors: horsemanship, therapeutic use, horses, rehabilitation
Stepansky,
K. (1974). Service dogs breeds and working dogs breeds [Sluzebni
a pracovni plemena psu].
NAL Call Number: SF428.2.S73
Descriptors: working dogs, service dogs , breeds
Stiverson, C. and N. Pritchett (1996).
Assistance Dog Providers in the
NAL Call Number: HV1569.6.S75 1996
Descriptors:
service dogs, training directories,
Vincent, I.C. and R.A. Leahy (1997). Real-time non-invasive measurement of heart rate in working dogs: a technique with potential applications in the objective assessment of welfare problems. The Veterinary Journal 153(2): 179-184, ISSN: 1090-0233.
NAL Call Number: SF601.V484
Abstract: The Polar Sport Tester (Polar Electro OY) is a telemetric heart rate monitor designed for use in humans. Its usefulness as a monitor during training of guide dogs is assessed in this paper. Heart rates from six representative dogs at a similar stage of early training were recorded at 5-s intervals during a 15-20 min work session. The dogs were F1 Labrador Retriever X Golden Retrievers. They were chosen if their behaviour could be clearly categorized by their experienced trainers as either 'calm/non-stress prone' (Type A) or 'excitable/stress prone' (Type B) during work. Verbal recordings were made of environmental cues and behavioural responses in each dog. Variability in heart rate was significantly related to a subject's described temperament.
Descriptors: guide dogs, heart rate, variation, measurement, monitors, animal welfare, temperament
Walsh, P.G. and P.G. Mertin (1994). The training of pets as therapy dogs in a women's prison: a pilot study. Anthrozoos 7(2): 124-128, ISSN: 0892-7936.
NAL Call Number: SF411.A57
Descriptors: women, dogs, training of animals, correctional
institutions, psychological factors,
Weiss, E. (2002). Selecting shelter dogs for service dog training. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 5(1): 43-62, ISSN: 1088-8705.
NAL Call Number: HV4701.J68
Descriptors: dogs, working animals, training of animals, selection criteria, choice of species, testing, aggressive behavior, fearfulness, temperament, decision making
Weiss, E. and G. Greenberg (1997). Service dog selection tests: effectiveness for dogs from animal shelters. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 53(4): 297-308, ISSN: 0168-1591.
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: dogs, working animals, guide dogs, handicapped persons, selection, behavior patterns, stray animals
Wilsson, E. and P.E. Sundgren (1997). The use of a behaviour test for selection of dogs for service and breeding. II. Heritability for tested parameters and effect of selection based on service dog characteristics. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 54(2/3): 235-241, ISSN: 0168-1591.
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: dogs, working animals, heritability, characteristics, animal behavior, behavior patterns, testing, animal breeding, selection criteria
Wilsson, E. and P.E. Sundgren (1997). The use of a behaviour test for the selection of dogs for service and breeding. I. Method of testing and evaluating test results in the adult dog, demands on different kinds of service dogs, sex and breed differences. Applied Animal Behavior Science 53(4): 279-295, ISSN: 0168-1591.
NAL Call Number: QL750.A6
Descriptors: dogs, working animals, dog breeds, sex differences, selection, behavior patterns, testing
Wollrab, T.I. (1998). Animals contribute service to society. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212(4): 475-476, ISSN: 0003-1488.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3
Descriptors: therapeutic recreation, horse riding
Wright, P.J. and T.A. Mason (1977). The usefulness of palpation of joint laxity in puppies as a predictor of hip dysplasia in a guide dog breeding programme. The Journal of Small Animal Practice 18(8): 513-522, ISSN: 0022-4510.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 J8292
Descriptors: hip laxity, radiographs, method comparison, palpation, young dogs, predictors
Selected World Wide Web Resources
Legal Resources
State Laws
Assistance Animal Access Consulting Services
http://animalaccesslaw.tripod.com/links.htm
State laws for animal access.
Guide Dog Protection Laws for Several States
http://www.acb.org/arizona/gduaslaw.html
Guide dog protection laws by state.
Disability Resources Inc.
http://www.disabilityresources.org/DRMreg.html
Laws for each state regarding the use of
animals by people with disabilities.
MSN TV News
http://www.msnbc.com/onair/nbc/dateline/guides/maptext.asp?cpl=1
State access laws for guide dog users.
Federal Laws
Delta Society
http://www.deltasociety.org/dsz102.htm
Service animals in housing, history of housing act, protection
of the fair housing act, required conduct.
http://www.hud.gov/offices/fheo/FHLaws/index.cfm
Fair Housing Act, Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 109 of Title I of the
Housing and Community Development Act of 1974, Title II of the Americans with
Disabilities Act of 1990, Architectural Barriers Act of 1968, Age Discrimination
Act of 1975, Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972.
International Association of Assistance Dog
Partners
Assistance dogs selection and training information, assistance
dog laws and legal resources, assistant dog information from around the world.
http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/newsletters/v7n2/7n2hende.htm
Air Carrier Access Act of 1986, Fair Housing Amendments Act,
Americans with Disabilities Act, Implementation of
http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahom1.htm
Enforcement, New or Proposed Regulations,
http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/cguide.htm
Disability Rights Laws.
http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/svcanimb.htm
ADA Business Brief, Americans with Disabilities Act, violations.
Traveling with a Service Animal - US Department
of Transportation (DOT) Guidance
http://airconsumer.ost.dot.gov/rules/20030509.pdf
(PDF)
http://airconsumer.ost.dot.gov/rules/20030509.doc
(Microsoft Word)
Guidelines for transportation personnel regarding service animals.
General Information
CyberCIL Assistance Dog
Information
http://www.cybercil.com/dog.html
Definition of assistance dogs.
Service Animal Registry of
http://affluent.net/sara/index.htm
Registry service
for service and therapy animals.
Service Animal Links
http://www.geocities.com/moonotter3/salinks.html
Links to more service
animal web sites, particularly dogs.
History of Service Animals
http://www.nhm.org/exhibitions/dogs/atd/assistance.html
Beginning of guide, hearing, and service
dogs.
Assistance Dog Resources
Amazing Tails, LLC
http://www.amazing-service-dogs.com/
Definition of a service dog, training a service dog, cost
of a service dog.
Canine Circle by Dana Marshall
Laws pertaining to service animals, access
issues, guide dogs, hearing dogs, service dogs, information for businesses,
traveling information, equipment links.
Delta Society
http://www.deltasociety.org/dsb000.htm
Benefits of a having a service dog, health
benefits, who can benefit.
Guide Dogs
Pros and cons of assistance dogs, the history
of guide dogs and their training.
International Association of Assistance Dog
Partners (IAADP)
A non-profit, cross-disability organization representing people
partnered with guide, hearing and service dogs.
National Service Dogs Training Centre Inc.
Problems usually aided by dogs, breeding information.
National Education for Assistance Dog Services
http://www.neads.org/index.shtml
A non-profit organization that trains dogs
to assist people who are deaf or physically disabled.
Dogs for the Deaf,
Inc.
http://www.dogsforthedeaf.org/
An organization that
rescues dogs from shelters and trains them to assist deaf people.
The Seeing Eye
The oldest organization
in the
Seizure-Alert Dogs Save Humans With Early Warnings
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0416_030416_seizuredogs.html#main
National Geographic
article about seizure-alert dogs.
Other Service and Therapy Animals
http://www.helpinghandsmonkeys.org/
Benefits of having service monkeys, who
would benefit from a monkeys service.
The Guide Horse Foundation
Information about miniature horses and training
details.
The Daily Cat
http://www.thedailycat.com/netscape/mind/relationships/archive/therapy_cats/
Benefits a therapy cat can give.
Hometown
http://hometown.aol.com/Kat53KG/Page2CatsAsTherapists.html
What cat therapists can do.
Paws Prints and Purrs
http://www.sniksnak.com/therapy.html
Examples of pet therapy and how animals
can help people.
Federation of Riding for the Disabled International
Worldwide organization dedicated to
developing therapeutic riding programs.
North American Riding for the Handicapped Association,
Inc. NARHA
Promotes the benefit of the horse in helping
people with physical, emotional and learning disabilities.
American Hippotherapy
Association
http://www.americanhippotherapyassociation.org/
The use of equine
movement as a treatment strategy.
The Animal Welfare Information Center,
awic@nal.usda.gov
http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/companimals/assist.htm
April 9, 2004